Institutional Discrimination in America - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1093 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2019/04/01 Category Society Essay Level High school Topics: Discrimination Essay Did you like this example? For about 250 years we had slavery in America, 90 years of Jim Crow, 60 years of separate but equal, and 35 years of racist housing policy. All these years of racism and discrimination has brought not only individual discrimination between one person and another, but also institutional discrimination carried out by social institutions. One of the worst policies introduced by a social institution, that still affects us today was, the Federal Housing Administration that was introduced in 1934 and lasted until 1968. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Institutional Discrimination in America" essay for you Create order A practice that denies mortgages based on race and ethnicity. This brought us housing segregation that is still a huge problem. Until we cooperate together and admit our faults, America will continue to not be equal forever. Not only does institutional racism affect housing and public schooling, but it affects politics, healthcare, jobs, and so many other sectors. Many people believe since slavery was abolished and hate crimes are illegal, racism no longer is an issue. But just because something is made illegal, does not mean it is not happening. For example, people are still murdering, raping and millions of cases are not solved, and no justice is provided. Just like systemic bias is treated. Here are some examples of institutionalized racism, A study from CNN on wrongful convictions among three types of crimes (murder, sexual assault, and drug crimes,) show, that black people are more likely to be wrongfully convicted than white people and are also likely to spend longer in prison before being exonerated for their crimes and 58% of prisoners are black or Hispanic despite making up one quarter on the U.S. population (Vega 2017). Another huge issue that stems from these uneven incarceration rates, is tha t in many states, felons are not allowed to vote do that means more than 1 out of every 10 black men cannot vote. One more fact from the National Education Association, 74% of black students and 80% of Latino students attend schools that are more than half-minority populations. This is segregation and it is an effect that stemmed from the Federal Housing Administration Mortgage Insurance requirements in 1965. How did this all start? After World War II and all the vets came home, the FHA helped finance military housing. They alleviated the home ownership crisis according to an article off Boston fair housing. But what they also did was isolate residential developments that we call the suburbs today. They, stripped the inner city of many of their middle-class inhabitants, thus hastening the decay of inner-city neighborhoods. Loans for the repair of existing structures were small and for short duration, which meant that families could more easily purchase a new home than modernize an old one, leading to the abandonment of many older inner-city properties (Fair Housing Center). They also practiced a policy of redlining which denies and limits financial services to neighborhoods based off of its racial or ethnic makeup. There was even a wall built to separate the blacks and the white so the FHA appraisers, could approve mortgages on white peoples properties so they can invest, and their childr en can have good lives and good futures. People of color where left out of the new suburbs and shoved into urban housing projects. According to the National Public Radio, Today African-American incomes on average are about 60 percent of average white incomes. But African-American wealth is about 5 percent of white wealth (Domonoske 2016). Why do you think this is? The good old housing policy! Middle class families usually invest in the equity of their homes, so they gain more wealth. White families used their home equities to send their kids to college, give them good health care, and give their wealth to them as well. So, none of these resources where given to African Americans because they were prohibited from being in the suburbs! Our federal government created this segregation and people do not know about this history. This practice of redlining still exists, an article by the Hill, reported that ATT discriminated against low-income areas in Cleveland not bringing them top broadband capabilities. A theory that was introduced by Emile Durkheim, mechanical solidarity, is a social integration of members who have similar beliefs. The members of these societies have a collective conscience that makes them cooperate. This was happening in these white suburban communities. They where living around, communicating, working, and working for only other white people. It was a euphoria for the racist white person, and it was completely legal. White people all had the same experiences, same values and they did not want things to change and once things did start to change, they moved out of the communities and the prices for homes just would go up. After Martin Luther King was murdered, Congress passed a Fair Housing Act of 1968. A policy meant to bring equal housing opportunities regardless of race, ethnicity or religious beliefs. But over the next 50 years, this act was rarely enforced. Today, it is still much harder for black families to get a mortgage or home loan than it is for a white person. In a report by the US Department of Housing and Urban Development, racial bias in the housing market was evidenced by the rate at which homebuyers were shown available housing. The report found that renters and homebuyers of color were shown and told about less homes white homebuyers (2012). It is a basic right that should be offered to every single person in this country regardless of their race or ethnicity. Another major thing that gets affected by this institutional discrimination, is our public schooling that is paid by property taxes. People who live in better, nicer neighborhoods, have access to the best schooling with better paid teachers, better supplies and equipment, and many more resources. This is a huge problem because kids are not being taught equally and it is only getting worse. According to an article by Vox, Black children are now more likely to grow up in poor neighborhoods than they were 50 years ago (Chang 2018). Research says that growing up in segregated, poor neighborhoods will affect so much of your life. It can determine your education level, your income, your happiness, health and even your life span. This is all a result from redlining and the Federal Housing Administration. People still to this day have no idea about segregation today and its history and where it came from. Just like Durkeims theory of mechanical solidarity, white people are too comfortable with being just around each other. Nothing will change until we admit our faults as a country and come together to create an equal world for everyone.

The Implantation Genetic Diagnosis ( Pgd ) Using Vitro...

Pre- implantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD) using In Vitro fertilization is one of the many solutions for families to conceive children who cannot do so naturally. The term â€Å"In Vitro† is Latin, meaning â€Å"out of the body† (In Vitro Fertilization (IVF). Definition). The process begins with a woman taking fertility drugs in order to increase her egg count. The woman plays a physically and emotionally demanding role. She must take powerful hormones for ten days to produce multiple eggs. Every day during in vitro s early phases, she must give blood to be tested, and then undergoes ultrasound testing so physicians can monitor embryonic development both chemically and visually (International Political Science Review 8.2 (1987)). Afterward, the female’s egg, and the male’s sperm is removed in multiples with the use of a small surgery by the name of follicular aspiration, and placed in a laboratory dish where it is then fertilized for about five to six days. At this point in the process, the newly fertilized embryo is examined to determine whether or not the embryo(s) show(s) any sign of genetic disease or any other flaw that could be potentially passed down from one or both parents. From there, a successfully tested embryo will be placed into the uterus of the female three to five days after, in order to develop naturally. What classifies as a successful embryo would be one that either shows no sign of carrier genes from either parent, or one that shows signs of a recessive carrierShow MoreRelatedArgumentative +/- Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis1001 Words   |  5 Pagesbecause of a genetic abnormality you never even knew you had. Your mind races and your heart sinks. How is this possible? You never thought you would have to deal with not being able to have a baby one day. There are several options you have to try and conceive without passing on the genetic abnormalityÂ… the doctor continues to explain, but the one I would reco mmend first is Pre Implantation Genetic Diagnosis. You and your wife finally decide on PGD, a type of in-vitro fertilization. But thereRead MorePGD Essay1127 Words   |  5 PagesWhat is PGD? The demand for Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD) involves people that have genetic or chromosomal disorder, either personally or in their genetic makeup, who desire a healthy baby that doesn’t acquire the genetic or chromosomal disorder for example; Cystic Fibrosis and Huntington’s Disease. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis with assistants from IVF meets this demand. PGD is a reproductive option for those who do not want to pass on specific genetic disorders or chromosome imbalanceRead MoreVitro Fertilisation ( Ivf ) Essay1402 Words   |  6 PagesIn vitro fertilisation (IVF) is a form of assisted reproduction where the eggs from the woman are extracted under anaesthetic and placed in a culture dish with thousands of sperm, allowing the process of fertilisation to take place outside the body. The resulting embryos are grown in the laboratory over 2 – 5 days before being transferred back into the woman’s uterus increasing the chance that a pregnancy will occur. Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) is a screening test used to determineRead MoreIVF and Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis: Essay1048 Words   |  5 Pagesinfertility (ASRM). In vitro fertilization (IVF) is one of the many assisted reproductive technologies used to help infertile couples achieve pregnancy. Since IVF is costly (the average cost is $12, 400. for one cycle), time consuming and a very emotional situation, many couples have a limited amount of opportunities to commit to the procedure and every step should be taken to maximize the chances of a successful healthy pregnancy. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis, or PGD, is a valuable tool forRead MoreThe Benefits of Human Genetic Engineering Essay1654 Words   |  7 PagesPre-implantation genetic diagnosis is a revolutionary procedure that utilizes in vitro fertilization to implant a healthy egg cell into the mother’s uterus after it is screened for mutations or other abnormalities. That way, only healthy eggs can develop to term and become beautiful, bouncing boys or girls. Designer babies have a bright future in the face of science because they are genetically engineered to be: disease free; viable donors for a sibling or parent; and with optional eliminationRead MoreCase Study Of Two Current Embryo Selection Methods1423 Words   |  6 Pages 2 Current Embryo Selection Methods 2.1 Pre-Implantation Genetic Diagnosis PGD or pre-implantation genetic diagnosis is possible for in vitro fertilization. Researchers use a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to test the sensitivity and can help diagnose any genetic disorders before the egg is implanted. PGD is a screening method of the current embryos before they are implanted back into the women’s uterus. This method was first utilized in 1990 and enabled couples to create and screen several embryosRead MoreUsing Ivf ( Vitro Fertilisation )1503 Words   |  7 Pagesx PDG stands for Pre Implementation Genetic diagnosis it is a technique used to help examine and recognise a specific genetic defect within embryos created using IVF (In-Vitro Fertilisation). This technology is performed to prevent disorders or diseases being passed on to the child. The ultimate aim for couples attempting to use PGD is to produce an offspring free of chromosomal genetic defects. In New Zealand this technology is very limited and every application must be sought through an d gain approvalRead MoreAn Immoral Injustice: Designer Babies702 Words   |  3 Pagesgene-enriched (Preface to Genetic Enhancement of Human Abilities n.p.). The gene-enriched refers to people with designer genes chosen by parents who have had the same done to them. This technology will first prevent birth defects and later diabetes and heart disease. As artificial genes develop to be common, the technology may be used to prevent drug and alcohol addictions, mental diseases, and eventually to create humans with synthetic characteristics (Preface to Genetic Enhancement of Human AbilitiesRead MoreAssisted Reproduction - 12056 Words   |  9 PagesHD is a genetic disorder that begins showing signs at anywhere from 35-45 years of age. Its symptoms begin with slow loss of muscle control and end in loss of speech, large muscle spasms, disorientation and emotional outbursts. After 15-20 years of symptoms HD ends in death. HD is a dominant disorder which means that her child will have a 5 0% chance of contracting the disorder. Feeling that risking their babys health would be irresponsible, the couple decides to use in vitro fertilization to fertilizeRead MorePreimplantation Genetic Diagnosis is Unethical and Immoral Essay816 Words   |  4 Pagessome of the genes of a baby to make a â€Å"perfect† child. A procedure called pre-implantation genetic diagnosis, or PGD, has been used for years by doctors who wanted to reduce the chance of women carrying babies infected with life-threatening diseases. PGD was first used to improve the likelihood of a successful pregnancy for couples suffering with recurring miscarriages and parents who had the chance of passing on genetic diseases to their offspring. Dr. Jeffrey Steinberg, a reproductive endocrinologist

Autonomy- the Right of a Client to Self Determination Free Essays

Consider the six major ethical principles of autonomy, veracity, confidentiality, nonmalfeasance, beneficence, and justice. Think back over your many years of educational experiences. Provide examples from your past (either recent or distant—your choice) that illustrate the importance of these 6 major ethical principles. We will write a custom essay sample on Autonomy- the Right of a Client to Self Determination or any similar topic only for you Order Now The experiences you recount may have happened to you personally, you may have witnessed them, or you may have read about or heard about them from others. Any of these types of examples are fine to use in your journal entry. The most important point is that you choose examples that made a lasting impression and influenced your feelings and perceptions related to education (either positive or negative—your choice). Write a conversational paragraph for each of the six principles, including your illustrative example and then brief discussion related to how the example shaped what you know and feel about the educational process. Autonomy- the right of a client to self determination In the ER where I currently work, I am usually not privy to the conversations between the physician and the patient. I am usually providing care to another patient. I receive the orders for pain medication and then proceed to the room to administer the medication. I feel it is my duty, as a nurse, to educate the patient regarding their right to refuse the medication the physician ordered. I empower them with education regarding the effects and side-effects and allow them to refuse the medication if they desire. I educate them to the importance of knowing as much information regarding their own healthcare as possible and allow them the choice to accept or refuse the offered medications. I feel strongly about this aspect of care in the ER. I do not feel the patient should blindly accept medications simply because it was prescribed by a physician. Veracity- truth telling; the honesty by a professional in providing full disclosure to a client of the risks and benefits of any invasive medical procedure. Often times children are fearful of nurses and the procedures they endure in the ER. They often cry as soon as we walk into their room. I feel it is a disservice to these tiny people to lie to them about the medicine they will take or the IV that may need to be started. Even though they are minors and veracity might not be a law that applies to them, I feel they will be more trusting of me and of future nurses if they are told that an IV actually will hurt, but just for a moment, rather than surprising them with a painful procedure when they are trusting you that it will not hurt. Lying to patients is wrong on an ethical level and it also put nurses in an untrusting light. We should always be forthright with every patient, even if they are young or old. Simply procedures may hurt different people on different levels but everyone deserves to know if they are going to be uncomfortable or not. Confidentiality- a binding social contract or covenant to protect another’s privacy; a professional obligation to respect privileged information between health professional and client. Confidentiality is inherent in the field of medicine and nursing and many professional are accustomed to this ethical principal. HIPPA has been drilled into the nurses’ head and the associated fines for violating this law. The aspect that I feel strongly about regarding confidentiality is when my patient in the ER has ingested or used an illegal substance or a narcotic that is altering their care. If the patient believes we will keep their medical information confidential then they are more likely to reveal the drugs they have used so we can better treat them. I remember years ago when I was working as an EMT in the ER and a young man, in his 20’s, came in with chest pain. The EKG showed an acute MI. The patient has no risk factors and it was amazing to everyone that the EKG was showing this at this early hour while he was on his way to work. In the end, after going to the cath lab and having an angiocath inserted in his groin and not heart disease was discovered did he reveal that he had used cocaine. If this patient had been informed that his information would be confidential, and had HIPPA been in place, he might have felt more comfortable revealing this information and avoiding this unnecessary procedure. I assure my clients that no police will ever be notified and that legally their information is protected so they may feel more at ease in revealing the drugs they have taken so we can treat them properly. Nonmalfeasance- the principal of doing no harm. Nonmalfeasance encompasses negligence and/or malpractice (Bastable, 2008). Malpractice can encompass failure to follow standards, communication, ocumentation, monitoring, acting as an advocate, and delegating. The first few hours and days after delivery of a preterm infant are critical times when head bleeds may occur. Simply lifting the legs while changing the diaper can result in a head bleed. Having this understanding and not rushing through cares is critical as a NICU nurse. There are serious developmental problems that may occur with third and fourth degree bleeds and the long term sequelae are daunting. As a nurse at the bedside with these neonates and communicating with the parents, we should always hold in mind the ethical principle of beneficence. It may be very easy to transgress in these areas of the nurse is not attentive and diligent in their work. Being a nurse means stepping outside of our feelings and judgments and treating others, â€Å"attentively and vigilantly so as to avoid mistakes (Tong, 2007, p. 25). Beneficence- the principle of doing good; acting in the best interest of a client through adherence to professional performance standards and procedural protocols. Beneficence encompasses patient welfare but not necessarily to the well being of the healthcare provider (p. 34). I feel an example of this is lifting and moving of heavy patients. It is my duty to assist them to a position they request or to find a more comfortable position if they state they are uncomfortable or if I am aware that their position my cause skin breakdown or harm but not to the detriment of my own body. Nursing injuries are preventable and hospitals have a duty to provide equipment to ensure their nurses do not get injured. There are hoists, slide boards, and even extra man power available to ensure the nurse does not get injured lifting an increasingly obese population. Protocols for lifting ensure the patient is not harmed if the nurse falls while helping them also. I often ask for more assistance in moving patients from chairs to beds and I also enlist the help of the patient if they can assist me with their position chance. Justice- equal distribution of goods, services, and burdens regardless of client diagnosis, culture, national origin, religious orientation, and sexual preference. there may be times when a patient is deemed unworthy by the nurse and he/she may feel that the patient doesn’t deserve to be treated the same as other patients. One example that comes to mind is occurring this week. The shooter of the 6 officers wounded last week is alive and in hospital right now, receiving care for a gunshot wound he suffered. As his nurse, I might need an extra few minutes each day to reassess why I am a nurse and the duties I must conform to before entering his room. The prisoner deserves the exact same treatment as the officers, yet he will be facing the death penalty once the court proceedings start. The same is true of the high prof ile mental health patients at the Utah State Hospital. They all deserve the same treatment as any other individual, yet they have done such tremendous harm to others. 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Logistics and Supply Chain Management Logistics Perspective

Question: Discuss about the Logistics and Supply Chain Management for Logistics Perspective. Answer: Introduction OMEGA is an independent fuel retailed providing fuel to the major cities in Queensland. The organization has 100 fuel outlets across the major parts of Queensland and sells close to 1000 million liters of fuel annually. The organization is planning to import refined product from various refineries present in Singapore. This report focuses on the logistics management concepts and tools to be used in the process of importing the fuel from the Singaporean refineries in order to gain competitive advantages over larger organizations like BP (Christopher, 2016). Analysis As mentioned earlier, OMEGA is planning to import refined products from various mega-refineries operating in Singapore. OMEGA has leased tank farms in Townsville, Mackey and Bundaberg. This section of the report mentions some of the logistics challenges of importing fuel from Singapore in Australia (Coyle, 2016). The transportation activities in Australia can be defined in different categories as mentioned below. Roads The roads in Australia can be divided into federal highways, state highways and local roads. The road freight industry in Australia generates close to 50 billion dollars in revenue and has more than 40000 operators. These operators range from single-truck operators to large corporations listed in ASX. One of the logistics challenges for OMEGA is to setup an effective contract with one or more of these operators to move the fuel from the ports to the fuel tanks. The identification and choice for the road operators for OMEGA is a challenge to be completed through effective analysis of the performance, trustworthiness and business model of the operators (Waters, 2014). The road freight transport industry in Australia also provides a wide range of innovative solutions and emerging technologies for the transportation of the products. OMEGA can analyze these facilities provided by the road freight operators to determine the most efficient way to transport the refined products from the port s to the fuel tanks. This is one of the important logistics challenges of OMEGA importing the products from Singapore (Ghaderi, 2015). Figure 1 Producer Price Index (source: www.abs.gov.au/) The chart above shows that the Producer Price Index (PPI) has been increasing slowly over the past 10 years. Such a trend of the PPI for the road freight transport industry suggests that the costs of transporting by road has been increasing. On the other hand, the movement of these costs have been flat since 2014, which in turn suggests a possible benefit from the decreasing fuel price and slower average wage growth (Figure 1, 2016). The decision of transporting the imported products from the ports to the fuel tanks will be a logistics challenge, which OMEGA has to overcome to be able to determine and utilize either the rail or road freight transport industry (Kinnear, 2015). Rail The rail transport industry is responsible for the generation of close to 8 billion dollars of revenue and consists of more than 25 operators. The logistics challenge for OMEGA is to decide whether to utilize the rail industry to move the fuel products from the ports to the fuel tanks and the choice of the operator among the available operators in the corresponding industry (Ghaderi, 2013). Figure 2 Rail freight routes map (source: https://transportinfrastructurecouncil.gov.au) The figure above shows the rail network in Australia connecting the major locations valuable to the business operations of OMEGA (Figure 2, 2016). OMEGA has to weigh out the benefits and costs of transporting using the rail or road freight transport industry based on the national key freight routes map shown below (Figure 3, 2016). This map contains the pictures of the routes though both the rail and road transport connecting the significant places in the country like the ports and airports. Another logistics challenge that OMEGA faces is to determine the most effective route for the transportation of the refined products imported from Singapore, which can be supported by the analysis of the below key freight routes map (Wijeweera, 2014). Figure 3 Significant rail and road freight routes map (source: https://transportinfrastructurecouncil.gov.au) Ports There are a lot of important ports scattered across Australia which can be used for importing refined products from Singapore. The figure below shows the location of the ports across the county (Brooks, 2012). Close to 4 billion dollars of revenue is generated from the Australia port industry due to the operations of close to 27 businesses. Most of these ports are facing congestion issues due to the heavy dependency of most of the import and export activities of the country on the port industry. The federal and state governments have been actively working on the design and implementation of efficient port strategies in order to utilize them more effectively. There are a large number of Figure 4: Ports in Australia (source: www.searates.com) domestic and international shipping operators present in the sea freight industry utilize these ports. The identification of the most effective shipping operator is another logistics challenge in importing refined products from Singapore. The shipping transport industry in the sea contains both foreign and domestic operators in which the domestic operators generate more than 4 billion dollars of revenue (Figure 4, 2016). The federal and state governments are also working to increase the fleet size of the country in the sea freight industry in order to provide more opportunities for the import and export activities of the organizations. Recent analysis proves that the presence of the vessels in the sea fright transportation industry is good enough to support the import activates of OMEGA (Bell, 2014). Australian biosecurity requirements The Australian Government Department of Agriculture and Water Resources includes the operation of Biosecurity Australia, which is responsible for the definition of the policies on the importation of various quarantine risk materials into the country. The Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service (AQIS) is in turn responsible for implementing these policies for the importation of materials into Australia. The importation of the refined products from Singapore by OMEGA will fall under these requirements and would need to satisfy these requirements to be able to import the products. All the vessels coming into Australia from overseas are subjected to these biosecurity requirements implemented by AQIS to be safe inside the country. The products to be imported by OMEGA should also be compliant to the international health regulations to ensure getting a permission to use the corresponding products in the Australian markets. This is one of the most significant challenges of OMEGA for imp orting the refined products from Singapore to ensure that the importation of the products from Singapore comply with the different regulations and policies implemented by the federal government of Australia. The Biosecurity Act 2015 is the regulation in place currently in Australia to ensure that the imported products from overseas are safe to be used in the Australian markets (Nelson, 2014). Recommendations This section of the report mentions a number of recommendations for the importation of the products from the Singaporean mega-refineries by OMEGA. OMEGA should focus on the effective analysis of the operators available in the sea freight industry in order to choose the best possible operator for the transportation of the refined products from the Singaporean mega-refineries to the Australian ports. The management of the organization should locate the ports closest to the fuel tanks present in Townsville, Mackey and Bundaberg in order to minimize the inland transportation costs (Pateman, 2016). The management of the organization should efficiently analyze the costs and performance of both the rail and road freight transport industry in Australia to determine the best decision for the inland transportation system to be used for the transportation of the fuel products from the ports to the fuel tanks. The management of the organization should put a lot of focus on the analysis of all the major freight transportation routes in the country covered by both the rail and road transportation system in order to minimize the corresponding costs of transportation. The importation operations of OMEGA should be effectively designed to be compliant to the Australia biosecurity requirements mentioned in the corresponding legislations as the non-compliance to these requirements may cause major disciplinary or legal actions against the organization (Hausman, 2013). Conclusion The efficiency of the business strategy of OMEGA to import the refine fuel products from the Singaporean mega-refineries to gain competitive advantage over the large organizations will depend on the effectiveness of the importation policies to be defined by the management. The sea freight industry in Australia is utilized to a significant extent and include the usage of all the important ports across the country. The inland transportation industry in the country includes both the rail and road freight transportation, which in turn provides the organization to choose either a single or a combination of the two for the transportation of the products from the ports to the fuel tankers (Pateman, 2016). References Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australian Government, 2016, Producer Price Index, [ONLINE] Available at: https://www.abs.gov.au/ [Accessed 19 August 2016]. Bell, J, 2014, Climate change and coastal development law in Australia, Annandale: Federation Press. Brooks, M R, Puckett, S M, Hensher, D A and Sammons, A, 2012, Understanding mode choice decisions: A study of Australian freight shippers, Maritime Economics Logistics, 14(3), pp 274-299. Christopher, M, 2016, Logistics supply chain management, Pearson Higher Ed. Coyle, J, Langley, C J, Novack, R A and Gibson, B, 2016, Supply chain management: a logistics perspective, Nelson Education. Ghaderi, H, Cahoon, S and Nguyen, H O, 2015, An investigation into the non-bulk rail freight transport in Australia, The Asian Journal of Shipping and Logistics, 31(1), pp 59-83. Ghaderi, H, Namazi-Rad, M R, Mokhtarian, P, Fei, J, Cahoon, S and Ho, T K, 2013, Punctuality improvement in Australian rail freight network by transit time management. Hausman, W H, Lee, H L and Subramanian, U, 2013, The impact of logistics performance on trade, Production and Operations Management, 22(2), pp 236-252. Kinnear, S, Rose, A and Rolfe, J, 2015, Emissions Reporting in the Australian Road Freight Transport Sector: Is There a Better Method than the Default Option?, International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, 9(2), pp 93-102. Nelson, M, Roffey, P, McNevin, D, Lennard, C and Gahan, M E, 2014, An overview of biosecurity in Australia, Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences, 46(4), pp 383-396. Pateman, H, Cahoon, S and Chen, S L, 2016, The Role and Value of Collaboration in the Logistics Industry: An Empirical Study in Australia, The Asian Journal of Shipping and Logistics, 32(1), pp 33-40. SeaRates, 2016, Sea Ports of Australia AU, [ONLINE] Available at: https://www.searates.com/maritime/australia.html [Accessed 19 August 2016] Transport and infrastructure council, 2016, National Key Freight Routes Map, [ONLINE] Available at: https://transportinfrastructurecouncil.gov.au/publications/files/freight_route_maps/National_Map_A3_RAIL.pdf [Accessed 19 August 2016]. Transport and infrastructure council, 2016, National Key Freight Routes Map, [ONLINE] Available at: https://transportinfrastructurecouncil.gov.au/publications/files/freight_route_maps/National_Map_A3_ROAD_and_RAIL.pdf [Accessed 19 August 2016]. Waters, D and Rinsler, S, 2014, Global logistics: New directions in supply chain management, Kogan Page Publishers. Wijeweera, A, To, H and Charles, M, 2014, An empirical analysis of Australian freight rail demand, Economic Analysis and Policy, 44(1), pp 21-29.